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Thursday, May 7th, 2009
American Revolution and the War for Independence
Introduction
This article is dedicated to the history of the American Revolution and the War of Independence. The main objective of the study presented here is to make analysis of events in the late 18th century in the British colonies in target = "_blank"> North America based on historical documents published in the majority of the United States. The process that took place before and during the period 1776-1783 when 13 British colonies aspiration for independence erupted in the so-called war of Independence is remarkable for its many unique features, first, and for many historical parallel that occurred a century later, when the system of propagation in the colonial world started to crumble.
John Adams, second President of the United States, said that the history of the American Revolution began in 1620. "The revolution, he says," has been made before the war began. The Revolution was in the mind and heart of people. "The principles and passions that have led Americans should rebel, he added, "to go back for two hundred years and sought in the history of the country from the first planting in America. "
In practice, however, clear separation of ways between England and America began in 1763, more a century and a half after the first permanent settlement was founded at Jamestown, Virginia. The settlements have increased significantly in economic power and cultural level, and almost all had long years of self-government behind them. Their total population now exceeds 1.5 million, an increase of six times since 1700.
Implications the physical growth of the colonies were far greater than mere numerical increase would indicate. The 18th century brought a growing steadily since the arrival of immigrants from Europe, and since the best land near the coast had already been occupied, the new settlers had to push inland beyond the fall line of the watercourse. Traders explored the hinterland, brought back tales of rich valleys, and induced the farmers to take their families into the desert. Although difficulties were enormous, restless settlers wanted to come, and the pioneers of the 1730s had already begun to pour into the Shenandoah Valley.
Down to 1763, Britain had made no coherent policy of its colonial possessions. The guiding principle was the mercantilist point of view confirmed that the colonies should provide the mother country of raw materials and not compete in manufacturing. But the policy was poorly enforced, and the colonies had never thought themselves subject. Instead, they saw themselves primarily as republics or states, like England itself, having only an association Free with the London authorities.
At irregular intervals, the feeling has been aroused in England and efforts have been made by Parliament or the Crown to make economic activities and governments of the colonies to England the will and interest – efforts to have the majority of settlers were opposed. The remoteness afforded by a vast ocean allayed fears of reprisal colonies, otherwise have had.
Added to this remoteness is the very nature of life in early America. From countries limited in space and dotted with populous towns, the settlers came from a land of seemingly endless scope. On a continent natural conditions stressed the importance of the individual.
1. border situation
The settlers, descendants of traditions the long struggle of the English concepts for political freedom, freedom consists in the first charter of Virginia. It provided that the Settlers English were to exercise all liberties, franchises and immunities "as if they had been abiding and born within this kingdom of England ours. "They were then enjoy the benefits of the Magna Carta and common law.
In the early days, the colonies were able to hold fast to their heritage of rights because of the arbitrary assumption of the king they are not subject to parliamentary scrutiny. In addition, for years after, the kings of England have been too concerned about a big fight in England itself – a struggle that culminated in the Puritan Revolution – to impose their will. Before the Parliament could give its attention on the task of molding the American colonies to an imperial policy, they grown strong and prosperous in their own right.
In the first year after they had set foot on the new continent, settlers had worked by English law and the constitution – with legislatures, a system of representative government and a recognition of common-law guarantees the individual freedom. But more and more legislation became American point of view, and less attention has been given to practical English and precedents. However, freedom from British colonial effective control was not achieved without conflict, and colonial history abounds struggles between the assemblies elected by the people and the governors appointed by the King.
However, the settlers have often been able to make the governors Royal powerless, because in general, the governors had "no livelihood, but the Assembly." Governors have been sometimes responsible for providing cost-effective offices and land grants to settlers for their influential support for projects of the king, but more often than not, the colonial authorities, once they achieved these emoluments, married popular cause as strongly as ever.
The recurring clashes between the governor and the Assembly has worked increasingly to awaken the colonists to the divergence between American and British interests. Little recently, meetings have taken the functions of governors and their boards, which were made up of settlers selected for their docility the support of royal power, and the center of colonial administration shifted from London to the provincial capitals. In the early 1770s, following the final expulsion of French North America continent, an attempt was made to achieve a radical change in the relationship between the colonies and the motherland.
2. British and French conflict
While the British had been filling coastal zone of the Atlantic with farms, plantations and cities, the French had been planting a different kind of domination in the valley of the St. Lawrence in eastern Canada. After sending a smaller number of settlers, but most explorers, missionaries and traders Fur, France had taken possession of the Mississippi River, and a line of forts and trading posts, was a major empire in the shape of a crescent that stretches Quebec in the north of New Orleans in the south. Thus, they tend to force the British to the narrow strip east of the Appalachians.
The British had long resisted what they saw as "the encroachment of the French." Since 1613 localized clashes between settlers were French and English. Finally, there were organized warfare, the U.S. equivalent of the most great conflict between England and France. Thus, between 1689 and 1697, "King William War" was fought as the American phase of the Community European "War of the Palatinate. From 1702 to 1713," War of the Queen Anne "corresponded to" The War of Spanish Succession. " And from 1744 to 1748, "King George's War" in parallel "war of Austrian Succession." Although England won benefits from some of these wars, the struggles were generally indecisive, and France remained in a strong position on the American continent.
In 1750, the conflict was brought to a final phase. The French, after the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748, have tightened their grip the Mississippi Valley. At the same time, the movement of English colonists across the Alleghenies in the tempo increased, stimulating a race to the physical possession the same territory. A gunfight in 1754, accompanied by Virginia militia under the command of the 22-year-old George Washington and a band of French used, introduced into the French "and Indian War" – with the British and their Indian allies fighting against the French and their Indian allies. This was determine once and for all French or English supremacy in North America.
Never had there been more need for action and unity in the British colonies. The French threatened not only the British Empire but the American colonists themselves, for the holding of the Mississippi Valley, France could check their westward expansion. The French government of Canada and Louisiana have not only increased in strength but had also prestige with the Indians, even the Iroquois, traditional allies of the British. With a new war, all British settlers in Indian sage knew that drastic measures not be necessary to avoid disaster.
3. beginnings of unity
At this stage, the British Chamber of Commerce, hearing reports of deteriorating relations with the Indians, ordered the governor of New York and the Commissioners other colonies to convene a meeting of Iroquois chiefs to supervise a joint treaty. In June 1754, representatives from New York, Pennsylvania, Maryland, and in New England colonies met in Albany with the Iroquois. The Indians played their grievances, and the delegates recommended appropriate measures.
The Albany Congress, however, exceeded its initial goal of solving the problems of Indians. She said an American union colonies "absolutely necessary for their conservation", and the colonial representatives present adopted the Albany Plan of Union. Selected by Benjamin Franklin, the plan stated that the president appointed by the king with a note of the Grand Council of delegates chosen by the assemblies, each colony to be represented in proportion to its financial contribution to the general treasury. The government was to have the charge of all British interests in the west – Indian treaties, trade, defense, and settlement. But none of the colonies accepted Franklin's plan, for none wished to surrender either the taxing power or control over the development of the west.
The colonies offered little support for war as a whole, all schemes failing to bring "a sense of their duty to the king." Settlers could see the war as as a struggle for the empire from England, and France. They felt no qualms when the British government was obliged to send large number of regular troops to conduct colonial battles. They do not regret that the "redcoats," rather than the provincial troops, won the war. They did not see any reason to restrict trade that, in fact, made the trade with the enemy.
Despite this lack of support without reservation and despite colonial army at the beginning of several defeats, England and superior strategic position his able leadership finally brought victory. After eight years of conflict, Canada and the upper Mississippi Valley have finally been conquered, and the dream of a French empire in North America faded.
Having triumphed in France, not only in America but in India and around the colonial world in general, Great Britain was forced to confront a problem that it had hitherto neglected – The governance of his empire. It is now essential that it organize its vast possessions to facilitate defense, reconcile the divergent interests of different areas and peoples, and distribute more equitably the cost of imperial administration.
In North America, the British Overseas has more than doubled. For the narrow band along the Atlantic coast have been added the vast expanse of Canada and the territory between the Mississippi and the Appalachian Mountains, an empire in itself. A population that had been predominantly Protestant and English now included continental Anglicized French Catholic and a large number of partly Christianized Indians. The defense and administration of new territories, and the former would require enormous money and personnel have increased. The system "colonial" was manifestly inadequate. Even during the necessities of War threatens the very existence of the settlers themselves, system proved incapable of ensuring the colonial cooperation and support. What then can be expected in peacetime in the absence of external danger arises?
4. colonial resistance
Delete like the need for a new British imperial design, the situation in America was far from conducive to change. Accustomed long to a large measure of independence, the colonies were demanding more, at least, freedom, especially now that the French threat had been eliminated. To put a new system in force, to tighten control, the State of England had to contend with settlers trained to self-government and impatient of interference.
One of first things attempted by the British was to organize inside. The conquest of Canada and the Ohio Valley necessitated policies that would not alienate the French population and India. But here the Crown came into conflict with the interests of the colonies, which, rapidly increasing population, were determined to exploit the newly acquired territories themselves. Needing more land, various colonies claimed the right to extend their borders to the west up the Mississippi River.
The British government, fearing that the farmers to migrate to the new lands would provoke a series Indian wars, believed that Indians should be restive time to settle and that the land should be opened to colonists on a more gradual. In 1763, a royal proclamation reserved throughout the West between the Alleghenies, Florida, Mississippi, and Quebec for the use of Indians. Thus the Crown attempted to sweep away all land claims in the Western thirteen colonies and to stop the westward expansion. Well he never actually applied, this measure, in the eyes of the colonists, constituted a breach of their most basic right highhanded to occupy and use land in the West, if necessary.
More serious in its repercussions was the new financial policy the British government, which needed more money to support the growing empire. Unless the taxpayer in England was to provide all this colonies should contribute. But revenues could be extracted from colonies by strengthening the central government to the detriment of the autonomy colonial.
The first stage of the inauguration of the new system was the adoption of the Act of 1764 sugar. This was designed to raise revenue without control of their trade. In fact, he replaced the Molasses Act of 1733, which had put a prohibitive tariff on imported rum and molasses from non-English areas. The amended Sugar Act prohibits the importation of foreign rum; put a modest duty on molasses from all sources, and collected the duties on wines, silks, coffee, and a number of other luxury items. To apply, the customs officials were ordered to show more energy and precision. British warships in American waters have been invited to seize smugglers, and "writs of assistance" (cover warrants) authorized the king's officers to search suspected premises.
5. tax litigation
It was not so much the new duties that caused consternation among the merchants of New England. It was rather the fact that measures were taken for their effective implementation, an entirely new development. For more than a generation, New England had been used to import most of the molasses for their rum distilleries of the French and Dutch West India without paying a fee. They now argued that payment of even the small duty imposed would be ruinous.
In this case, the preamble of the Sugar Act, the colonists gave the opportunity to rationalize their discontent on constitutional grounds. The power of Parliament to tax colonial commodities for trade regulation has long been accepted in theory but not always in practice, but the power to tax "for improving the incomes of this kingdom as shown in the Revenue Act of 1764, is new and therefore questionable.
The constitutional question is now entering a corner in the great dispute which was finally to wrest the American colonies of England. "A single act of Parliament," wrote James Otis, fiery orator from Massachusetts, has put more people of thought in six months, more than they did in their whole lives ahead. "Legislatures merchants, and town meetings protested against the desirability of the law, and colonial lawyers like Samuel Adams in the preamble of the first intimation of "taxation without representation", the slogan that was a lot of people to the cause of American patriots against the mother country.
Later that same year, Parliament adopted a Currency Act "to prevent paper bills of credit hereafter issued in a colony of Her Majesty to be legal." As given that the colonies were a deficit area and were constantly short of money "hard," added that a heavy burden on the economy colonial. History of American Money also undesirable from the point of view was the colonial cantonment Act, adopted in 1765, which required colonies to provide housing and supplies for royal troops.
Forte, as opposed to these acts, it was the last action of the opening the colonial system that has triggered new organized resistance. Known in history as the "Postal Law", he foresaw that the stamps tax are affixed to all newspapers, broadsides, pamphlets, licenses, leases or other legal documents, receipts (collected by American agents) to use to "defend, protect and secure" the colonies. The burden seemed so evenly and lightly distributed that the measure adopted by Parliament with little debate.
The violence of the reaction in the thirteen colonies, however, surprised moderate men everywhere. The act aroused the hostility of the most powerful and articulate groups of the population, journalists, lawyers, priests, merchants and businessmen, north and south, east and west, because it also covered all sections of the country. Soon leading merchants, each bill of lading would be taxed, organized for resistance and formed non-importation associations.
Trade with the mother country fell off sharply in the summer of 1765. prominent men organized as "Sons of Liberty, and the political opposition soon degenerated into rebellion. Inflamed crowds parade in the streets of Boston. From Massachusetts to South Carolina, the law has been canceled, and the crowds, forcing officials to resign their unfortunate offices, destroyed the hated stamps.
Led by Patrick Henry, the Assembly of Virginia adopted a series of resolutions denouncing Taxation without representation as a threat to colonial liberties. A few days later, the Massachusetts House invited all the colonies to appoint delegates a conference in New York to discuss the threat Stamp Act. The congress, held in October 1765, was the first inter-colonial never summoned to the U.S. initiative. Twenty-seven men from nine colonies seized the opportunity to mobilize colonial opinion against parliamentary interference in American affairs. After much debate, Congress passed a series of resolutions asserting that "no more taxes have been or may be imposed by the Constitution, but by their respective legislatures "and that the Stamp Act was a" manifest tendency to subvert the rights and freedoms settlers. "
6. Reduction of tax disputes
The issue thus drawn centered on the question of representation. From the point of colonies point of view, it was impossible to consider themselves represented in Parliament unless they actually elected MPs in the House of Commons. But this contradicts the principle of English orthodox "virtual representation", that is, representation by classes and interests rather by locality.
Most British officials held that Parliament was an imperial body representing and exercising the same authority on the colonies on the country: We can pass laws for Massachusetts because it could, Berkshire, England.
U.S. officials have argued that no "imperial" Parliament existed, their only legal relations were with the Crown. It was the king who had agreed to establish colonies beyond the sea and the king gave them with governments. That the king was also a king of England and King of Massachusetts they agreed, but they also insisted that the British Parliament has no right to legislate for the Massachusetts legislature had to adopt laws for England.
The British Parliament refused to accept the colonial contentions. British merchants, however, feel the effects of the American boycott, launched their weight behind a movement repeal, and in 1766, Parliament gave the repeal of the Stamp Act and the Act modified sugar. The colonies rejoiced. merchants of the colony abandoned the non-importation agreement, the Sons of Liberty subsided, trade resumed its course, peace seemed at hand.
But it was only a respite. The year 1767 brought another series of measures that stirred anew all the elements of discord. Charles Townshend, British Chancellor of the Exchequer, was called to develop a new program Financial. Intent on reducing British taxes by making more efficient the collection of duties levied on American trade, he tightened administration Customs at the same time the sponsorship rights on paper, glass, lead, and tea exported from Britain to the colonies.
This was designed to raise revenue to be used in part to support colonial governors, judges, customs officers, and the British army in America. Another proposed law Townshend authorized the superior courts of the colonies to issue writs of assistance, which provides specific authority for legal search warrants typically already odious to the colonists.
The excitement following the adoption of human Townshend was less violent than that generated by the stamp act, but it was nevertheless strong. Merchants once again use the non-importation agreements. Men dressed in homespun clothing, women have found substitutes for tea. Students used paper colonialism. Houses painted. In Boston where the mercantile interests in the most sensitive to interference, the implementation of the new regulations provoked violence. When employees Customs sought to collect duties, they were attacked by the mob and beaten. For this, two regiments were sent to protect the customs commissioners.
The presence of British troops in Boston was a standing invitation to disorder. On March 5, 1770, after 18 months of resentment, antagonism between citizens and soldiers erupted. What started as a harmless snowballing of the redcoats degenerated in a mob attack. Someone gave the order to fire, three Bostonians lay in the snow, and colonial agitators had a problem n valuable of their campaign to arouse the hostility towards England. Dubbed the Boston Massacre, the incident was considerably photo as proof insensitivity and British tyranny.
Faced with such opposition, Parliament in 1770 opted for a strategic retreat and repealed all Townshend duties except that on tea. The tax on tea was retained because, as George III said, it must always be a tax hold up the right. For most of the settlers of the action of Parliament is, indeed, redress "of grievances" and the campaign against England has been largely abandoned. An embargo on "English tea" continued, but was not too scrupulously met.
In general, the situation seemed to augur well for relations with the Empire. Prosperity is growing and most Colonial leaders were willing to let the future take care of itself. Inertia and neglect seems to succeed where boldest policies had failed. The moderate element everywhere predominant in the colonies, welcomed this interlude peaceful.
7. The Boston Tea Party
During a three-year interval of calm, a relatively small number of "patriots" or "radicals" trying vigorously to keep alive the controversy. While the tea tax remained, they contended, the principle of law Parliament on the colonies remained. And at any time in the future, the principle could be applied in its entirety with a devastating on colonial liberties.
Typical of the patriots was their most effective leader Samuel Adams of Massachusetts, who has worked tirelessly for a single purpose: independence. From the time he graduated from Harvard College, Adams was an employee in a certain extent-inspector of chimneys, tax collector, moderator of town meetings. A consistent failure in business, it has been notified and given the political, with the meeting in New Town England, the scene of his action.
Adam's tools were men: his goal was to win the confidence and support of ordinary people to free fear of political and social superiors, make them aware of their own importance, and encourage their action. To do this, he has published articles in newspapers and made speeches in town meetings, prompting resolutions calling for democratic impulses of the settlers.
In 1772, he led Meeting the city of Boston to select a "committee of correspondence" to state the rights and grievances of the colonists, to communicate with other cities on these issues, and asks them to draft replies. Soon the idea spread. Committees have been established in almost all the colonies, and they soon became a base of effective revolutionary organizations.
In 1773, Great Britain furnished Adams and his colleagues a question you want. The powerful East India Company, being in critical financial difficulties, has appealed to the British government and enjoyed a monopoly on all tea exported to the colonies. Due to the Townshend duty on tea, the colonists boycotted tea Company and, after 1770, as a flourishing illegal trade existed that perhaps nine-tenths of the tea consumed in America was home foreign and imported duty free.
The company decided to sell its tea through its own agents at a price well under that of use therefore both to smuggle unprofitable and eliminating the independent colonial merchants. Woke up not only by the loss of the tea trade, but also by the monopolistic practice involved, colonial traders joined the patriots. In almost all the colonies, steps were taken to prevent the company of India for carrying out its design.
In ports other than Boston, agents of the company were "persuaded" to resign, and deliveries of new tea has been returned to England or warehoused. In Boston, the agents refused to resign and, with the support of the royal governor, preparations were made to land incoming cargoes regardless of opposition. The response of the patriots, led by Samuel Adams, was violence. On the night of December 16, 1773, a group of men disguised as Mohawk Indians boarded three ships British anchor and dumped their cargoes of tea into Boston Harbor.
8. British repression
A crisis today facing Britain. The East India Company made an Act of Parliament, and if the destruction of the tea went unheeded, Parliament would admit the world that he had no control over the colonies. Official opinion in Britain almost unanimously condemned the Boston Tea Party as an act of vandalism and advocated legal measures to bring the insurgent colonists into line.
Parliament responded with new laws, called by the colonists "Coercive Acts." The first, the Boston Harbor Bill, which closed Boston Harbor until the tea was paid, threatens the very life of the city, to exclude Boston from the sea meant economic disaster. other legislation prescribed by the king appointed advisers Massachusetts, previously elected by settlers, and the summoning of jurors by the sheriffs, who were agents of the governor. So far, the jurors had been selected colonial town meetings. Also, the governor of the authorization would be necessary to hold meetings in the city, and the appointment and dismissal of Judges and sheriffs would be in his hands. A Quartering Act required local authorities to find suitable quarters for British troops.
The Quebec Act, passed nearly the same time, extended the boundaries of the Province of Quebec and guaranteed the right of the French inhabitants to enjoy religious freedom and their own legal customs. The colonists opposed the Act because, disregarding old charter claims to western lands, He threatened to disrupt westbound traffic and seemed to hem them in the north and northwest by a Roman Catholic-dominated province. Although the Act Quebec had not been adopted as a punitive measure was filed by Americans with coercive laws, and all became known as the name "Five Intolerable Acts." These acts, instead of submitting Massachusetts, as they had planned to do, rallied its sister colonies to its relief.
At the suggestion of the Virginia Burgesses, colonial representatives were summoned to meet in Philadelphia on September 5 1774, "to see the current status of colonies unfortunate." Delegates at this meeting, known as the First Congress Continental, have been chosen by provincial assemblies or conventions popular. Every colony except Georgia sent at least one delegate, and the total number of 55 was large enough for diversity of opinion, but small enough for genuine debate and effective action.
The division of opinion, in the colonies posed a genuine dilemma for the Congress must give an appearance of firm unanimity to induce the British government to concessions and, at the same time, it must avoid any show of radicalism or "spirit of independence" that alarmed the American moderates. A cautious rhetoric, followed by a determination "that no obedience is due to coercive laws, ended with a Declaration of Rights and grievances to the people of Great Britain.
The most important action taken by Congress, however, was the formation of a Association, which provides for the renewal of the trade boycott and a system of committees to inspect customs declarations, to publish the names of merchants who violated the agreements, confiscate their imp0rtations, and encourage frugality, economy and industry.
The Association provided leadership throughout, stimulating new local organizations to end what remained of royal authority. These bully hesitant to join the popular movement and punished the hostile. They began collecting military supplies and troop mobilization. And they spread public opinion in revolutionary ardor.
A gap that had developed slowly among people with expanded activities Association Committees. Many Americans, opposed to the encroachment on the Rights of British America, has encouraged discussion compromise and that the appropriate solution. This group includes most of those ranking official (officials appointed), many Quakers and members of other religious sects opposed to the use of violence, many merchants, especially the middle colonies, and some discontented farmers and pioneers of the southern colonies. The Patriots, on the other hand, drew their support not only of the less well to do, but many professional class, including lawyers, most major Southern planters, and a number of merchants.
While the course of events after the passage of the Coercive Acts left the loyalists shocked and scared, the king might well have made a covenant with them and, by timely concessions, so strengthened their position that the Patriots would found it difficult to conduct hostilities. But George III had no intention of making concessions. In September 1774, in defiance of a petition by Philadelphia Quakers, he wrote: "The die is cast, the colonies must either submit or triumph." This cuts the grass under the Loyalists or "conservatives" as they came to be called.
GeneralThomas Gage, an amiable English gentleman with a woman of American origin was commander of the garrison of Boston, where political activity had almost completely replaced the trade. A leading patriot of the city, Dr. Joseph Warren, wrote to an English friend on February 20, 1775:
"It's not too late to receive the dispute amicably, but I am of the opinion that if once General Gage is expected to lead his troops in the country with the design to apply the last acts of Parliament, Great Britain can take leave, at least in New England, and if I am not mistaken, all over America. If there is no wisdom in the nation, God, it can be quickly called before! "
Gage was general duty to enforce the law enforcement. News reached him that the Patriots Massachusetts were collecting powder and ammunition within the city of Concord, 32 miles from Boston. On the evening of April 18, 1775, he sent a strong detail of his garrison to confiscate these munitions and to seize John Hancock and Samuel Adams, both of whom had been ordered sent to England to stand trial for their lives. But the whole campaign had been alerted by Paul Revere and two other messengers.
When the British troops, after a night walk, reached the village of Lexington, they saw through the morning mist of a dark band of 50 minutemen – armed colonists – lined up along the municipality. There was a moment of hesitation, cries and orders from both sides and in the midst of noise, a shot. Gunfire broke out along the two lines, and the Americans dispersed, leaving eight of their dead on the green. The first blood of the war for American independence had been paid.
The British drove to Concord, where farmers "under siege" to North Bridge "fired the shot heard round the world. "Their purpose partly accomplished, British forces began on March return. All along the road, behind stone walls, hills and houses village militia and firm targets the bright red coats of British soldiers. When the column of weary stumbled Boston its losses totaled nearly three times higher than those experienced by the settlers.
9. The Congressional debates on the independence
New Lexington and Concord flew from one local authority to another in the thirteen colonies. Within 20 days, he spoke a common spirit of American patriotism from Maine to Georgia.
While the alarms of Lexington and Concord were still re-rings, the Second Continental Congress met in Philadelphia May 10 1775. Its chairman was John Hancock, a wealthy Boston merchant. Benjamin Franklin, who had returned from London, where, as "agent" for several of these colonies, he had vainly sought conciliation. The Congress was organized just before he was called to address the issue of open warfare. Although some opposition was present, the real character of the Congress was revealed by a statement of agitation 'Causes and the need to take up arms ", the joint product of John Dickinson and Jefferson:
"Our cause is just. Our union is perfect. Our resources internals are great, and, if necessary, foreign assistance is undoubtedly attainable …. The arms we have been compelled by our enemies to assume, we … used for the preservation of our liberties, being with a mind resolved to die freemen rather than live slaves. "
Even that statement was the subject of debate, Congress has taken the militia in continental service and appointing Colonel George Washington commander in Chief of U.S. forces. Yet, despite the military involvement and the appointment of a commander in chief, the idea of a separation Full England was still repugnant to some members of Congress and an important part of the American people. It is clear, however, that the colonies could not remain forever half and half of the British Empire.
10. The stiffening of resolution
As the months passed, the difficulties of prosecuting a war in any part of the British Empire became increasingly apparent. No compromise came from England, and August 23, 1775, King George issued a proclamation declaring the colonies to be in a state of rebellion.
Five months later, Thomas Paine published a pamphlet of 50 pages, Common Sense, driving home in a vigorous style of the need for independence. Paine, a theorist policy that came to America from England in 1774, even dared to attack the sacred person of the king, ridiculing the idea of hereditary monarchy and declaring that one honest man is worth more to society than "all the crowned ruffians that ever lived." Convincingly, he presented the alternatives – continued submission to a tyrannical king and an outdated government or freedom and happiness as a self-sufficient, independent republic. Distributed throughout the colonies, the brochure has helped to crystallize conviction and to rally the undecided the question separation.
It remained the task of winning the approval of each colony to a formal declaration of separation. It was agreed that the Continental Congress should not take such an approach ultimately that independence without first receiving explicit instructions colonies. But Congress has heard all the days of the establishment of other new colonial governments and extra delegates to be allowed to vote for independence. At the same time, the dominance of radicals within the Congress have increased as they extended their correspondence, committees strengthened weak, and the patriotic spirit fire stirring resolutions.
Finally, May 10, 1776, a resolution to "cut the knot Gordian was adopted. Today, only a formal declaration was needed. On June 7, Richard Henry Lee of Virginia introduced a resolution Expressing independence, foreign alliances, and the American federation. Immediately, a committee of five persons, directed by Thomas Jefferson of Virginia, has been appointed to prepare a formal statement "setting forth the causes which led us to this great resolution. "
11. Declaration of Independence
The Declaration of Independence, adopted July 4, 1776 – Not only announced the birth of a new nation, it also provides a philosophy of human freedom now as a dynamic force in the world West. It was based not on specific grievances, but on a broad base of individual freedom that could support general throughout America. Its political philosophy is clear:
"We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness. That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among men derive their just powers from the consent of the governed, That whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it people's right to alter or to abolish it and institute new Government, laying its foundation on such principles and organizing its powers in such form, as to him seem most likely to effect their Safety and Happiness. "
The Declaration of Independence is a goal well beyond a public notice of separation. Its ideas inspired mass fervor for the American cause, because it gave ordinary people a sense of their own importance, encouraging them to fight for personal freedom, self-government, and a worthy place in society.
The War of Independence lasted more than six years, with fighting in every colony. Even before the Declaration of Independence, there were military operations that have influenced important it after the war – for example, the crushing of the North Carolina loyalists in February 1776 and in March the forced evacuation of forces British in Boston.
For many months after independence was declared, the Americans suffered serious setbacks. The first of them was in New York. In the battle of Long Island and Washington became ununtenable, and he executed a masterly retreat in small boats from Brooklyn to the shores of Manhattan. Wind north, the British warships could not come up the East River. Thus, the British general William Howe lost a chance treat the American cause a blow, perhaps ending the war.
Washington, but always rejected, was able to maintain his forces intact until the very end of the year. important victories at Trenton and Princeton revived hopes colonial, then a Again disaster struck. In September 1777, Howe captured Philadelphia, has led Congress in flight, and left Washington for the winter with his men at Valley Forging.
However, 1777 also saw the greatest American victory of the war, the military turning point of the Revolution. British General John Burgoyne moved down from Canada with a force to take control of Lake Champlain-Hudson River line and thus isolate New England from other colonies. Burgoyne reached the upper Hudson River, but before he could continue to the south, was forced wait for the supply until mid-September.
Ignorance of American geography has led believe it would be easy for a raiding force to march in the Hampshire Grants (Vermont) along the Connecticut River horses and back, collection, livestock, and cars along the way for the use of his army, while the space of two weeks. For this feat, he chose 375 foot dragons Hesse and about 300 Canadians and Indians. They did not even reach the threshold of Vermont. The militia of Vermont met near Bennington. Few ever returned Hessians.
The Battle of Bennington joined the New England militia, and Washington sent reinforcements to the lower Hudson. When Burgoyne again put his force in motion, the army of General Horatio Gates was waiting for him. Led by Benedict Arnold, the Americans twice repulsed British. Burgoyne fell back to Saratoga, and on October 17, 1777, he surrendered. The decisive blow of the war has brought France to the U.S..
Conclusion: the final victory of the colonies
From the time the Declaration of Independence was signed, France had not was neutral. The government had been eager for reprisal against England since the defeat of France in 1763. In addition, the enthusiasm for the American cause was high: the French intellectual world was itself in revolt against feudalism and privilege. Yet, if France Benjamin Franklin hosted the French court and had given the U.S. support in the form of food and ammunition, he was reluctant to risk direct intervention and open war with England.
After the capitulation of Burgoyne, however, Franklin was able to obtain commercial treaties and alliances. Even before that, many French volunteers had sailed to America. The most important of them was the Marquis de La Fayette a young officer, who, in the winter of 1779-80, went to Versailles and persuaded his government to make a real effort to bring the war to an end. Shortly later Louis XVI sent to America an expeditionary force of 6,000 men under the Comte de Rochambeau. In addition, the French fleet exacerbated the difficulties the British with the provision and strengthening their forces, and the French joined American blockade runners in inflicting severe losses on trade UK.
In 1778, the British were forced to evacuate Philadelphia because of threatened action by the French fleet. During the same year in the Ohio Valley, they have suffered a series of setbacks that have ensured the U.S. domination of the north-west. Nevertheless, Colombia continued to press the war in the south. In early 1780 they captured Charleston, the main port south, and came out of Carolina country. Year Next, they made an effort to conquer Virginia. But the French fleet, which has temporarily taken control of America's coastal waters summer, transported Washington and Rochambeau's troops in boats to the Chesapeake Bay. Their combined armies, totaling 15,000 men, under written by the army of Lord Cornwallis at Yorktown in 8000 on the coast of Virginia. On October 19, 1781, Cornwallis surrendered.
When news American victory at Yorktown reached Europe, the House of Commons voted to end the war. Peace negotiations began in April 1782 and continued until November, when treaties were signed before. It was not take effect until France concluded the Peace with Great Britain. In 1783, they were signed in the final and definitive. The peace settlement acknowledged the independence, freedom and sovereignty 13 States to which it has granted the coveted territory west to the Mississippi, and set the northern boundary of the nation as it works closely now. The Congress was to recommend to States to return property confiscated from Loyalists.
Bibliography
1. Billings, George Athan, ed. The American Revolution: How the Revolution was it? New York: Holt Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1990.
2. Beard, Charles A. and Mary. Basic History of the United States. New York: Doubleday, Doran and Company, 1944.
3. Eliot, George Fielding. American Revolution. Microsoft Encarta 1997 CD-ROM
Hafstadter. The United States. 4th Ed. 74, 76-77, 80.
4. Brinton, Crane. The Anatomy of Revolution. Vintage Books: New York, 1965
5. Greene, Jack P. The American Revolution, its nature and its limits. New York University Press: New York, 1987.
6. Origins Miller, John C. of the American Revolution. Stanford University Press: Stanford, 1959.
7. Thomas, Peter DG Tea Party to Independence: The third phase of the American Revolution, 1773-1776. Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1991.
8. Olsen, W. Keith, et al. Outline of American History. As reprinted on the U.S. Internet http://www.let.rug.nl/ ~ / H /.
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